During the Golden Age of Spain, from 711 until 1492, Muslims ruled Al-Andalus from Cordoba to Toledo and Seville to Granada. The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada (1238-1492) was the last independent Muslim kingdom in Spain. Prior to the Nasrid rule, the Vizier of Granada was Samuel ha-Nagid (933-1056), a Jewish scholar, statesman, poet, military commander during wartime, and leader of the Jewish community. He built his palace and gardens on the Sabika Hill where the Alhambra now stands. On December 30, 1066, in one of the only pogroms carried out by the Muslims against the Jews, Samuel’s palace was stormed and destroyed, and he was killed.  Muhammad I founded the Emirate of Granada in 1238, initiating a period of prosperity and culture. Refugees who fled from the north during the Spanish Reconquista created an even more diverse and tolerant population. The Alhambra, the new palace built on the Sabika Hill by the Nasrid dynasty, was surrendered on January 2, 1492, by Boabdil, the last Emir of Granada, to the Catholic monarchs Isabella I and Ferdinand II.

The Arabic word Alhambra means red or vermillion castle. It was given the name because of the clay containing iron used in the construction of the mile of walls that surround the 35-acre fortress and castles. The wall has 30 towers and four main gates. The main gate (1348), the south entrance, was named the Gate of Justice. The steep ramp with a ninety-degree turn permitted defense on either side. The sculpture of a hand, the five fingers symbolic of the Five Pillars of Islam, is above the gate. The Palace del Partal Alto (1273-1309) is the oldest of the palaces on the Hill. It is now a private residence. The Comares Palace and Tower and Hall of the Ambassadors were part of the expansion during the years 1314 until 1345. The Comares Palace is the center of the Nasrid palace complex. Next to it is the Mexuar, the administrative center where audiences were held, the council met, and records were kept.

The Hall of the Ambassadors was square, 37 feet on each side, and 75 feet tall. All the walls contain three arched doors that lead to rooms and balconies. The stucco carvings include the usual Muslim themes, and the inscriptions are taken from poems and the Koran. Many of the inscriptions call for Allah to save the people from the devil: “My help from the wrath of God and from all the devil who allows the breaking of hell; and free me from the evil of the envious when he is ready to envy. And there is no other living divinity than that of God whom I must praise eternally. The praise of the God of the centuries.”

The center niche on the wall to the right contained the throne. On March 31, 1492, the Alhambra Decree (Edict of Expulsion) was signed by Isabel and Ferdinand in the Hall of Ambassadors. Jews had until July 31, 1492, to either convert to Catholicism or leave Spain. Don Isaac Abravenel, a Portuguese Jew and respected councilor and financier who funded the voyage of Columbus to the new world, and Abraham Seneours, a Sephardic rabbi and senior member of the Castile government, plead not to sign the document to no avail.  Abravenel emigrated and Seneours converted.  The humanitarian crisis was enormous.  Thousands of Jews went into exile. 

From the square room of Earth to the circular dome of Heaven, the Hall of the Ambassadors was constructed with the finest materials and technology the Muslims had developed. The ceiling was constructed of 8017 interlinked pieces of cedar wood and embedded with lapis lazuli to represent the Seven Heavens of Islamic Paradise. The dead are transported to one of the Seven Heavens

based upon their respective virtues. Lapis Lazuli, deep blue in color, is a semi-precious stone deemed sacred since ancient times. Its name comes from the Persian word lazward (gem) and the word azure (blue) from several languages.

The Alhambra covers 35 acres on the Sabika Hill. The Citadel/Fortress can be seen at the left. The Moorish palace of the Nasrids is at the center top of the plan. The Hall of the Ambassadors, marked #2, projects beyond the Courtyard of the Myrtles, the center of the palace. The Courtyard of the Lions is marked #3. Two small rooms just behind the courtyard are the Hall of Abencerrojes, marked #4, and the Hall of the Two Sisters, marked #5. The other buildings were constructed after1492 by the Catholic rulers. This image is cropped, but the gardens, called Generalife, continue in all directions.

Patio de los Arrayanes (Courtyard of the Myrtles) (1314-1325) was built by Isma’il I, fifth Nasrid sultan, and modified by his successors. The courtyard contains a reflecting pool that is140 feet long and 74 feet wide. Its name comes from the hedges of myrtle trees that were planted on both sides of the pool. Myrtles trees had white flowers and a sweet fragrance. For Jews, myrtles are one of the four plants used to build temporary huts, called sukkah, to celebrate God’s protection during their 40 years of wandering after the Exodus. For Christians, myrtles represent the promise of restoration and a blessing, their fragrance a divine favor. The Comares tower can be seen at the end of the courtyard. The pool was designed so that no movement of the water would alter the reflection of the tower. The horseshoe arches are decorated with stucco carvings.

The tiled wall at the end of the courtyard represents the wide variety of Islamic geometric patterns. On top of the tile are continuous stucco carvings including Tree of Life designs. The Koran mentions the Tree of Immortality from which Adam was forbidden to eat the fruit. Although the image is used frequently, it does not have a specific religious meaning. The branches extending from a central core represent personal spiritual growth and development and the proliferation of the faith.

Mohammad V built the Patio of the Lions in 1362. Located on the east side of the Comares Palace, the courtyard is 116 feet long and 66 feet wide. It is surrounded by 124 white marble columns.  The famous dodecagon (12-sided) fountain with its twelve white marble lions sits at the center.  The rooms off the courtyard were the private quarters of the royal family and harem.

The lions represent the twelve tribes of Israel from the Torah (Old Testament). They were a gift to Mohammad V from the Jews. Water flowed from the center of the fountain and out the mouths of the lions. The inscription around the rim of the basin is a poem by Ibn Zamrak (1333-1393), an Andalusian Arab. His poetry can be found in many places in the Alhambra. The text of the poem describes the beautiful fountain, the strength of lions, and the hydraulic system and how it worked. 

 

Sultan Mohammed V built The Hall of Two Sisters to serve as the residence of his wife and the royal family. The two large slabs of marble that form part of the floor inspired the name. No part of the wall and ceiling is undecorated, and the muqarnas ceiling is considered one of the finest examples of Nasrid architecture. The base of the dome appears to be hanging lace. 

The dome is eight-sided with sixteen windows.  It is constructed with over 5000 small wedge-shaped wooden muqarnas that form 16 lacey domes and the central flower shape. A simpler form of muqarnas was used in the construction of the Great Mosque of Cordoba, and elaborated over time by Muslim architects until they achieved this form.

Here the muqarnas were painted white. Turquoise, amber, and gold paint was used to create the intricate surface detail 

The Hall of the Abencerrages (sons of the saddler) is another example of elegant Nasrid architecture. Abu al-Hasan Ali, who ruled from 1464 until 1485, suspected one of the Abencerrages knights was having an affair with his favorite slave, who became his wife. He invited 30 chiefs of the Abencerrages to a banquet in the Hall, and he had them all beheaded. The heads were piled in the fountain. The stain remains on the floor where the fountain water ran red. 

The eight-pointed star design contains 16 windows. The dome rises above the windows.

The muqarnas structure is a complex mathematical development which the Muslims used most successfully.

The extensive gardens that surround the palaces are known as the Generalife. The name is Arabic, Jannat al-arifa. Jannat means paradise. Water channels, walkways, stairs, fountains, trees, flowers, fruits, and vegetables abound. Artistry and intellect are combined. The sights and smells of the garden create a sense of paradise.  A passage in the Koran 2:25 describes “gardens, underneath which running waters flow…”

Washington Irving lived in one of the Alhambra apartments for three months. A plaque marks his apartment.  He wrote Tales of the Alhambra (1832), a collection of essays that brought international recognition to the Alhambra. When he first arrived in Grenada, he described it as, “a most picturesque and beautiful city, situated in one of the loveliest landscapes that I have ever seen.” After his stay he said, “How unworthy is my scribbling of the place.”

 

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

A significant component of a mosque is its minaret, the tower from which the muezzin calls the faithful to prayer five times each day. The minaret of the Great Mosque of Cordoba (951-952) was 177 feet tall. It was entirely enclosed in 1593 when it was converted to the bell tower of the cathedral. The Giralda (minaret) of the mosque in Seville was built over a period of years from 1184 until 1198, during the reign of the Almohad dynasty. It was 343 feet tall and 45 feet square. The minaret remained unchanged when the mosque was rebuilt in 1434, during its conversion to a Gothic-style cathedral. The minaret was constructed from local brick, along with stone taken from nearby walls, a palace, and the remains of a Roman city. The tower contains 35 ramps. The outer decoration is designed to match the ramps. The middle section of the tower has the most windows to let in light. Two blind arcades were placed on either side. Ninety-two columns were topped with marble capitals. The Giralda remains the tallest structure in Seville, and it has become a symbol of the city.

 

The drawing at the left is a depiction of the original design (1198) of the Almohad tower. The drawing at the right is a depiction of the bells and the cross that were added after the building was declared to be a Catholic Cathedral in 1400.  The cast bronze female figure carrying a spear and shield in the center drawing was added in 1568. This rotating sculpture is 13 feet tall and functions as a weathervane. It was called Giraldillo, the Spanish word meaning to turn. The inscription is from Proverbs 18: “The name of the Lord is a fortified tower.”  Sometime during the 16th Century, people noticed the tower acted as a sundial, casting its shadow on the pavement below. Giralda was registered as a World Heritage Site in 1987 by UNESCO. 

The Caliphs of the capital cities of Al-Andalus, Cordoba, Toledo, Seville, and Granada, all had fortified castles called Alcazars. The Alcazar of Cordoba, near the Great Mosque, was restructured starting in 1236 when Christian’s took over the city. Today the Alcazar of los Reyes Christianos is surrounded by lush gardens. A sculpture of Isabella and Ferdinand with Columbus recognizes that their first meeting was at this Alcazar. Toledo’s Alcazar is on the highest hill. 

 

The Real Alcazar of Seville and the Alhambra of Granada are outstanding examples of Muslim architecture. Real Alcazar Seville (1150-1492), like all fortified castles was built over the original Roman fortress. In 1150 Seville became the new capital of Al-Andalus under the Almohad Caliph, and the fortress was called Al-Mubarak (The Blessed). The fortification was extended to include six palaces, and later to create nine. In 1163 the Alcazar became the official residence of Caliph Abu Ya’qub Yusaf, who expanded the structure, tearing down many of the existing palaces and building twelve more. This pattern of renovations over hundreds of years is typical.

The Porta del Leon was the main entrance into what was the 11th Century Almohad palace Al-Mubarak. The 28-foot-high defense wall has two large towers and a battlement with saw-tooth merlons across the top. The tile mural depicts a lion wearing a crown, holding a crucifix, and standing on a spear. At the corners, keys are held together by a gold cord.  The inscription on the banner “Ready for everything” was taken from Virgil’s Aeneid. The lion mosaic tile, historically as accurate as possible, was made in 1892. The gate has been called the Porta del Leon from then on. It was renovated c.1939 following the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939).

 

From 1350 until his death in 1369, Pedro I of Castile ruled in Seville. He decided to build a new Alcazar in 1364, with the entrance to his palace across the Patio de la Monteria which was opposite of the Porta del Leon. Porta de la Monteria (Hunting Gate), led into the courtyard where hunting parties gathered. Pedro was raised in an era of religious tolerance and had a strong relationship with the Jews and the exiled Nasrid sultan Muhammad V of Granada. Muhammad gladly sent skilled Muslim craftsman to build the place. As a result, the Alcazar of Seville and the Alhambra of Granada are the greatest example of Mudejar architecture. 

The first level of the entrance door to the Palace has two multi-lobed blind arcades decorated with carved vegetable and geometric patterns known as sebka.  These patterns had been developed in Muslim art over the centuries and by the 14th century had become extraordinary in the detail and variations. The window level was created to reflect both the lobed arches and tall pointed arches blending Muslim and Gothic styles. The blue and white Kufic inscription above the windows celebrates the building’s creator: “The highest, noblest and most powerful conqueror, Don Pedro, by God’s grace the King of Castile and León, ordered the construction of these Alcázares, and these palaces, and these façades, completed in the year 1402.”  “There is no victor but Allah” also is inscribed on the façade.

The Casa de la Contratacion (House of Trade for the Americas), on the right, was constructed at the direction of Isabella of Castile in1503. The founding of America on October 12, 1492, had brought a boom in trade to Spain. The Casa de la Contractacion was established for the merchants, admirals, and those who regulated the booming trade. The Alcazar is located on the Guadalquivir River. Seville became the major center of trade for Spain.

Patio Doncellas (Patio of Maidens) (1356-66) was the center courtyard of Pedro’s palace. The official life of the court took place there. Pedro’s love of Mudjedar design is evident. The long reflecting pool is surrounded by gardens originally filled with orange trees. The large arches in the middle of each side lead into various reception rooms with stairs to the upper story. The lower arches are multi-lobed while the upper story arches are round in the style of Catholic churches in the Renaissance. The courtyard was covered over sometime between 1581 to 1584 with white and black marble pavement. Between 2002 and 2005, the hidden courtyard was discovered and found to be in good condition. The original garden was restored. 

The name “Patio of Maidens” was drawn from a 1360 Muslim story about the tribute of 100 maidens to be paid annually to the Caliphs from the Christian kingdoms of Spain. The truth of this story is questionable.

 

This ceramic tile was used in the decoration of the Patio of the Maidens. Exquisite Muslim arabesques, geometric, leafy and floral designs, and texts were applied to ceramic wall tiles. This type of wall decoration became popular in Seville and Granada.  Seville became a center for the lustreware ceramic pottery in the 11th Century.  The Muslims brought the process to Al-Andalus. Seville was the major shipping center for Islamic ceramics that became popular in Europe. The fusion of the Islamic and Gothic styles became popular with royalty and the church. Commissions bearing their choice of subject came in from Italy, France, and other European countries.  Muslim pottery techniques were further developed in Europe. An example is Italian Majolica.

 

The Hall of the Ambassadors (1366-69) is entered from the Patio of the Maidens. The hall served as King Pedro’s throne room, the most lavish room in the palace and meant to impress. The room is square in the Islamic Qubba design and represents Earth. The ceiling represents the dome of Heaven. Triple horseshoe arches with marble columns and gold capitals line the four walls. A decorative rectangular frame is set within a large arch, with three blind arches. Another rectangle frames the entrance. The lower walls are covered with geometric ceramic tiles topped by border designs and large rectangles decorated with carved plaster work. Rows of tile and plaster work and blind arcades link the walls. The top level was redesigned in 1526 to include wrought iron balconies. The frieze containing portraits of Spanish monarchs was painted by Diego de Esquivel in 1599.  

 

The original dome was replaced in 1427. The new dome was created by Islamic architects who found a means to successfully turn the flat square ceiling into a rounded dome. When assembled, the carved wood sections (muquarnas) projected from the flat surface of the wall reaching to a central circle. The muquarnas were then covered with gold. The Hall of the Ambassadors is considered to be one of the best examples of Mudjedar architecture. 

 

Near the Hall of the Ambassadors is The Hall of Trade. It contains the Alejo Fernandez painting “The Virgin of the Navigators” (1535). The opening of trade with the Americas by Catholic Spain was of major significance and celebrated in this painting. The Virgin Mary descends from Heaven, high above the ships at sea. Her cloak shelters royals and navigators including Christopher Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, Ferdinand II of Aragon, and Carlos V. Four side panels contain depictions of Saint Sebastian with a sword and a bow and arrow (top left), Saint James the Moor-Slayer on a white horse (bottom left), patron saint of sailors St Elmo holding a ship (top right), and Saint John the Evangelist with a book, pen, and eagle (bottom right). Seville Cathedral is the final resting place of Christopher Columbus.

In addition to the interior courtyards and patios, the Real Alcazar contained many gardens: the Garden of Poets, the Garden of Dance, and the kitchen gardens. The Garden Levi was dedicated to King Pedro’s Jewish councilor and treasurer. Pools, ponds, water channels, fountains, and water spouts were created to provide beautiful settings with relaxing sounds. Planted with 200,000 plants representing 187 species, the gardens reflect the Quran’s description of Paradise.

The final article in this series is the Alhambra in Granada.

 

NOTE: Seville remains a city of orange trees. They grow on every street. The fruit is a special bitter orange that is used in cooking, specifically for making marmalade. Jars are labeled Sevillian Marmalade. 

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Cordoba was the first capital of the Muslim Umayyad dynasty in Al-Andalus, Spain. The Great Mosque of Cordoba was the topic of this series in the SPY on 7/31/25. The Muslim caliphate included Jews and Catholics as members. 

 

Simply called the Cordoba Synagogue, the building was completed in 1315 and remained in use as a synagogue until 1492, when Al-Andalus fell to the Catholic monarchs Isabel of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon. It is a small structure that suggests it was a private synagogue of a wealthy Jew. It is located on 20 Calle de los Judios, the heart of the Jewish community. The architect is thought to have been Isaac Makheb. The design is termed Mudejar, the Islamic Gothic style of Spain. The small size reflected the requirement that its worship spaces be smaller than those of Catholic churches. The courtyard and surrounding wall are approximately 90 yards square. Limestone was used in the construction of the wall because it was readily available. 

 

The photograph was taken inside the Prayer Hall, looking out to the west wall entrance doorway and hall. The women’s gallery is on the second floor, the wood stair railing visible at the left. The maskilta, a water basin for ritual ablutions, was in the entrance hall. The ceilings of both the entrance hall and the women’s gallery are supported by elaborately decorated wood beams.

The practice of separating men and women during the prayer service in Orthodox synagogues began with the building of the Second Temple in Jerusalem (518 CE). The separation did not diminish the role of women; they were equal to men. Separation was intended to allow individuals to concentrate and not be distracted.  Several inscriptions are written in bands that surround the carved blocks of Islamic geometric and vegetal decorations. In the women’s gallery an inscription from the Song of Songs (4:4) praises women: “Your neck is like the tower of David, built with rows of stones, on which hang a thousand shields, all of them shields of warriors.” The interpretation is that a woman’s beauty is like a tall tower, and it represents her strength and the protection she offers.

 

The major focus in the Prayer Hall is its eastern wall, where the Torah scrolls are placed in the heikhal (ark), directing worshippers’ attention toward Jerusalem. The placement of the Torah was established by Cordoba’s leading Sephardic Jewish citizen Maimonides, in the Mishneh Torah: “When building a synagogue…a heikhal should be built to hold a Torah scroll in it. The heikhal should be built in the direction of prayer in that town [toward Jerusalem], so that they [the congregation] should face the heikhal when they pray. And a bimah should be set up in the center of the house, to enable the reader of the Torah or one who admonishes the congregation, to go up to it so that everyone will be able to hear him…” The bimah and seating no longer survive.

One inscription praises the Temple in Jerusalem, creating a connection between the two synagogues; “I will bow down toward your holy heikhal and praise Your name for Your mercy and Your truth, for You have magnified Your word above all Your name…” (Psalms 138:2)

The inscription to the right of the Torah wall is a recognition of a donor: “This minor sanctuary has been refurbished by Yitzhak Mahab son of the wealthy Ephraim in the Hebrew year 5075 (1315 CE) may God remove curses from our nation and rebuild Jerusalem soon.”

Notable in the Cordoba Synagogue are the numerous Hebrew inscriptions on all the walls. Many are from Psalms and show Jewish hope to return to Jerusalem: “Pray for the peace of Jerusalem; those who love you shall be blessed. Peace be within your walls, prosperity within your palaces.” (Psalms 122:6-7) “Be merciful to me, O God, be merciful to me; for my soul trusts in You; in the shadow of Your wings I will take refuge until these great troubles pass by.” (Psalms 57:2)

Proverbs 8:34 is quoted on the south wall: “Happy is the man who listens to me, watching next to my doors every day, guarding the jambs of my entrances! Open the doors and let a just people enter, saver of loyalty!”

From the east wall: “I will prostrate towards your holy temple and praise your name because of your kindness and loyalty, for you have magnified your promise above your renown. One thing you have asked from Yahweh, this I intend; to live in Yahweh’s house every day of my life to enjoy Yahweh in grace and early visit his temple.“ 

 

There are five arched windows, each 24 by 59 inches, on the three walls, that allow natural light to flow into the space. The decorated wood beams that support the ceiling are partially visible. The carved geometric patterns on the blind arches are separated by wide bands of vegetal and geometric designs. There are narrow bands of text around each section.

After 1492, the Synagogue was converted to a hospital, then the Hermitage of St Crispin, after that an infant school. In 1885, it was included as one of the monuments on the Spanish Cultural Heritage list. 

 

Moses Ben Maimonides (1138-1204) was a prolific writer, philosopher, astronomer, physician, and most important, a Torah scholar of the Middle Ages. He was born in Cordoba and lived there until he and his family were forced either to convert to Islam or leave. He moved around, living in Morocco and Egypt. For a time, he was the personal physician of Saladin, the sultan of Egypt and Syria, who recaptured Jerusalem during the Third Crusade in 1187. Maimonides died in Fustat in Egypt and was buried in Tiberias, Israel.

The eight-hundredth birthday of Maimonides was recognized by the Spanish government by changing the name of the Calle de los Judios to Tiberias Square. For the first time in 443 years a service was conducted in the Synagogue, the only one to survive the years of persecution.  Restoration of the synagogue was begun in 1977, and the building was reopened as a museum in 1985 to celebrate Maimonides 850th birthday. 

 

“Maimonides” (1950) (28”) (marble) was sculpted by Brenda Putnam and placed in the United States House of Representatives with 23 other plaques dedicated to great historical law givers.

The Caliphate of Cordoba broke apart in 1031, and several new kingdoms were created.  Many Cordoba citizens migrated to the nearby city of Toledo, where the Muslim and Christian rulers were able to keep the city safe and prosperous. Different languages, religions, and cultures were tolerated for those who paid tribute to the rulers. There were at least eleven synagogues in Toledo.

 

Santa Maria le Blanca was originally the Ibn Shoshan Synagogue (1180). It is one of the oldest synagogues, and remains standing on 4 Calle Reyes Catholicos. The synagogue courtyard contained the Rabbi’s residence, a ritual bath and study hall. The wooden entrance door is decorated wi Muslim geometric patterns. 

 

The synagogue, in the style of the Muslim Almohad caliphate, was constructed of brick and mortar with plain white walls. It had a women’s gallery, subsequently lost along with the bimah center platform, where the torah was read, and the seats. There are five aisles; the center nave aisle is the tallest. The building is between 85 and 92 feet in length and 62 and 75 feet in width. The white columns are topped with carved pinecone capitals in Roman Corinthian and Byzantine styles. The arches above are simple horseshoe arches. Unfortunately, the original floor tiles have survived only as fragments. The red tile floor with the blue and gold bands was installed as part of a 19th century reconstruction.

 

The pinecone capitals were carved of stucco in a variety of designs. They were ochre in color, a contrast with the white octagonal columns.  

 

The white walls and columns give the synagogue a sense of openness. The main decoration can be found above the horseshoe arches. The low relief stucco carvings are depictions of scallop shells, tendrils of plants, geometric interlacing, and different knotwork designs. The geometric patterns of the wrought iron grilles in the windows help defuse the light and create interesting shadows on the plain white walls.

Anti-Jewish preacher Vincente Ferrer instigated the sacking of the synagogue in 1391. It was taken over by the Catholics and consecrated in 1401 as a Catholic church. The building was given to the Order of Calatrava, and dedicated to St Mary the White, named after a sculpture in the Cathedral. Three Renaissance chapels were added between 1550 and 1556, but they did not intrude on the synagogue interior. In the 16th Century the church was used as a military barracks, warehouse, and dance hall. It suffered one more humiliation when Napoleon used the space to stable his horses. The government returned the church to a local parish in 1856. The Church of Santa Maria de Blanca was added in 1930 to the Spanish Cultural Heritage list of monuments. The Jewish community of Toledo requested in 2013 that the synagogue/church be opened, not for worship, but as a museum.

The next article in this series will discuss the synagogue/church of El Transito and other Catholic structures in Toledo.

 

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

The Golden Age of Spain lasted from 711 until 1492 CE. Muslims migrated from Arabia across the straights of Gibraltar to the Iberian Peninsula of Spain and settled in what they called Al-Andalus. Originally part of the Holy Roman Empire, the region was conquered in the 5th Century by the Visigoths, who were Germanic Christians. Cordoba was the first Al-Andalus capital, founded in 756 CE by the caliphs of the Umayyad dynasty. Their rule of Al-Andalus lasted for 800 years until the Catholic Monarchs Isabel of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon took over in 1492.

The civilization that Abd-al-Rahman I created was splendid and included not only Muslims, but also Jews and Christians. Cordoba was one of the most cultured cities of the age with a population over a half million, free schools, a university, science center, and Moorish library containing 400,000 volumes. The Great Mosque of Cordoba (785-1236) is one of the most significant Muslim buildings outside Mecca. It was modeled after the Great Mosque of Damascus in Syria. The mosque, Mezquita in Spanish, contained a large courtyard garden in front. The main entrance is under the tall tower, a minaret, from which the faithful were called to prayer by a muezzin. The mosque was constructed on the site of a Visigoth Christian church. Construction of the original mosque began in 785-86. The structure was 242 by 259 feet and contained eleven aisles. It was completed in one year. The structure was expanded to 590 by 425 feet by the next rulers. The roof above each aisle was constructed using a basic gable design with two sides sloping from the roof line 

At the center of the mosque is the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Assumption. King Ferdinand III of Castile reclaimed Cordoba in 1236, and he converted the mosque into a cathedral dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Small chapels were constructed within the mosque, outside doors to the chapels were added, and the Royal Chapel was completed in 1371. The original construction was largely unchanged by these additions. Major changes in the building were not made until 1523, when King Charles V of Castile and Aragon (1519-1558) gave his permission to build the Renaissance church. Sixty columns in the mosque were torn down. Seeing the mosque and cathedral within it for the first time, the King became infuriated. He is reported to have said, “You have built what you or anyone else might have built anywhere; to do so you have destroyed something that was unique in the world.” 

Beyond the cathedral, the last outer wall of the mosque, called the Qibla, is faced by worshipers when they pray, because they are facing the Kaaba and Mecca.  Under the small tower structure in the center of the qibla wall is the Mihrab, a prayer niche. It is the most sacred area of the mosque. 

The Patio de los Naranjos (Oranges) (784) is a courtyard, or sahn, the oldest continuously planted Islamic Garden. The sahn was placed in front of the prayer hall so that worshippers could gather, interact, and prepare for prayer. The fountains provided water for ablutions, cleansing before prayer. 

Muslims created gardens where ever they lived because they came from dry dessert land. The gardens are rain gardens. Water channels lead to circular collectors around each tree. The collected rain filters through sand. When a collector is full, the water flows through the channel to the next collector.  This unique design allowed flourishing gardens to exist. Along with the large number of orange trees are pomegranate, cypress, and palm trees. The garden later was divided into three sections, each with a Renaissance fountain at its the center.

Entering the mosque from the front brings visitors into the massive and impressive Hypostyle Hall.  Prayer begins here. The Muslims used the remains of the Roman and Visigoth columns and capitals in the construction of the mosque. The term hypostyle comes from the Greek word meaning under pillars to describe columns supporting a roof. The two levels of Roman and Visigoth columns and capitals are topped with red and white horseshoe arches. The horseshoe arch, also called Moorish arch, was found in Umayyad construction in Damascus and used often by the Visigoths. The mosque contains over 800 columns. The horseshoe arches are composed of red brick and white limestone. At one time, steps led to the Minbar (pulpit) where the Imam delivered khutbah (sermons).  

 Some of the beams are simple wood planks, but others are elaborately carved and decorated as can be seen here. These are inlaid with gold mosaic tiles in intricate geometric patterns.  Jasper, marble, and porphyry stones add color. 

Closer to the qibla wall, the horseshoe arches are multilobed, cross-ribbed, and stacked. They are carved elaborately with arabesques, geometric designs, and calligraphy from the Koran. The increased decoration reflects the worshippers’ increased devotion as they moved toward the wall.

Abd al-Rahman III became the caliph of Cordoba in 929. He added the multilobed arches in front of the Maqsurah, the closed off space before the Mihrab, with wide aisles, decorated ceiling beams, and hanging lamps. The lamps are symbols of Allah: “Allah is the Light of the heavens and the earth. His light is like a niche in which there is a lamp, the lamp is in a crystal, the crystal is like a shining star, lit from ˹the oil of˺ a blessed olive tree, ˹located˺ neither to the east nor the west, whose oil would almost glow, even without being touched by fire. Light upon light! Allah guides whoever He wills to His light. And Allah sets forth parables for humanity. For Allah has ˹perfect˺ knowledge of all things.’’ (24:35) “That light shines˺ through houses ˹of worship˺ which Allah has ordered to be raised, and where His Name is mentioned. He is glorified there morning and evening.” (24:37)

The mosque was expanded during the 9th and 10th Centuries. The Mihrab, the niche in the outer wall in the floor plan, is the part of the mosque nearest Mecca, and the direction for congregational prayer. The Mihrab was rebuilt and decorated by al-Hakam II. Only 13 by 3 feet, the Mihrab is magnificent. In 971 Al-Haham II requested Nicephorus II, Byzantine Emperor from 963 until 969, to send craftsmen to create the gold mosaic for the Mihrab and the dome above it. An elegant horseshoe arch caps the entrance to the small interior room. The arch is covered with a fine glass mosaic in several colors, many covered with gold. The Byzantine capital was Constantinople, formerly part of the Greek empire, and its craftsmen were masters. They directed the project and trained the caliph’s craftsmen. This cultural exchange between Muslims and Christians worked well despite their political and religious differences.

The lower wall supporting the arch is marble carved with tree of life designs. A rectangular blue and gold mosaic contains Koran text. Above are six blind arcades with variations of plants that form the tree of life.

The Koran inscriptions touch on the importance of the creators of the work. The Koran does not specifically state no human images should be depicted, but it encourages the appreciation of beauty as a reflection Allah’s creation for a deeper connection to the divine. The red glass tiles probably were imported from Constantinople, as were several of the other colored tiles. Surrounding the mosaics are stone carved bands of vines and flowers, the expert work of the local craftsmen.

With backgrounds of gold mosaics, the trefoil (three) lobed blind arcades are decorated with different stylized plant motifs. They are surrounded by more of the vegetal carvings and geometric designs so much a part of the architecture of Al-Andalus.

The dome of a mosque was symbolic of heaven and connected earth with the heavenly realm. The dome is supported by multilobed horseshoe arches placed upon slender columns of marble, granite, jasper, and onyx. Interlacing arches rise above the columns, a band of blue and gold script surrounds the octagon that supports the unique shell-shaped dome. The filtered natural sunlight and the shadows create a greater sense of the celestial, the spiritual nature of Allah, the light. The dome is both traditional and innovative.  The Muslim craftsmen of Al-Andalus were just beginning.

The exploration of Al-Andalus will continue next time with Jewish Cordoba and Toledo.

 

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.

Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro (1830-1903) was the oldest of the Impressionist artists and considered a father figure, teacher, mentor, and supporter. He also was a prolific painter. Pissarro was born on the island of St Thomas, then part of the Danish West Indies. His father Gabriel Pissarro, a French Jew from Portugal, had moved to St Thomas to manage the hardware store owned by his recently deceased brother. He married his brother’s wife, and they had four children. The marriage was a scandal, and Camille and his siblings grew up as outsiders. All four children attended an all-black primary school. He met Danish artist Fritz Melbye in 1849, and Melbye took over Pissarro’s artistic education. He became Pissarro’s great friend and mentor. Pissarro later would do the same for the younger Impressionists. Pissarro and Melbye traveled to Venezuela and painted scenes from Caracas and St Thomas. 

Pissarro traveled to Paris in 1855 to serve as an assistant to Melbye’s brother. He studied the work of contemporary Barbizon painters Daubigny, Millet, and Corot, and realist painter Courbet, and all became friends. He was introduced to plein air painting. His first exhibit at the Paris Salon in 1868 was a success. The paintings he exhibited made his reputation, yet they were not of the Impressionist style that he would soon embrace. 

The Franco-Prussian war made it necessary for Pissarro to move to London, as was the case with several of his fellow artists. He met the art dealer Durand-Ruel and the artist Monet.  He married his mother’s maid Julie Vellary in 1871, and they had seven children, six of whom became painters. On returning to Louveciennes, outside Paris, he found that of the 1500 paintings he had made over the period of 20 years, and had to leave behind, only 40 remained.

The family moved to Pontoise in 1872 and remained there until 1884. Pissarro became one of the group of Impressionists artists who called themselves Société Anonyme des Artistes, Peintres, Sculpteurs et Graveurs. His paintings of working-class people in rural towns were fully Impressionistic. He participated in all eight of the Impressionist exhibitions. 

 

 

Pissarro suffered from a recurring eye infection that became severe in 1893. It prevented him from sitting outdoors and painting en plein air. He was determined to continue to paint outdoor scenes, but from the upper rooms of hotels in the cities of Paris, Rouen, Le Havre, Dieppe, and London. His reputation by that time was well-established and as he hoped his paintings of the new the new Paris designed by Haussmann attracted buyers. Pissarro painted “The Place du Havre, Paris” (1893) (24’’x29’’) from his window of the Hotel Garner during a visit for a few weeks. The large building to the right is the Gare St Lazare train station. Renoir and Monet had painted scenes of downtown Paris, but had long since turned to other themes. Pissarro revived the interest in Paris scenes. The wide avenues, Haussmann buildings, horsedrawn carriages, gas and then electric lights, and the continuous hustle and bustle as seen from above allowed him to capture the energy of the streets. 

 

 

Although city scenes were not a part of his usual subject matter, he excelled in these paintings. He said he could “see down the whole length of the boulevards, almost a bird’s-eye view of carriages, omnibuses, people, between big trees, big houses that have to be set straight.” He chose to depict the most important streets in Paris, and influenced by Monet, he chose different times of day and different weather conditions.  

“Rue Saint-Honore, in the Afternoon, Effect Rain” (1897) (32”x26’’) was one of several pieces he painted before moving on. Just over one mile long, Rue Saint-Honore was the center of Paris Haute Couture. High-end fashion houses, boutiques, designer shops, and art galleries attracted wealthy Parisiennes. Several horse-drawn carriages are parked at the curb, while others ply the crowded boulevard. Haussmann buildings line the street. The restaurant on the corner has a red and white awning and tables on the sidewalk. The plaza contains trees, a large fountain, and street lights. People, most with open umbrellas, populate the scene. More awnings and decorated store fronts are across the street. Pissarro was expert at handling the wet street and the gray atmosphere.

 

From February through April 1897, Pissarro recorded the Boulevard des Italians and the Boulevard Montmartre from his room in the Grand Hotel de Russie. He found “terribly difficult views” for his “Boulevard Italians, Morning Sunlight” (1897) (29”x36”) (National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC). 

The street was busy, with passenger omnibuses picking up and discharging passengers among the many individual carriages. Two rows of trees line the street, and the large sidewalks are full of people. Pissarro included a tall red advertising kiosk on the right sidewalk.  The kiosks were covered with flyers promoting all manner of things–theatre, opera, restaurants, the circus, cigarettes. The invention of lithography made it possible to print advertisements quicker and cheaper to promote the new bourgeois entertainments. The posters of Toulouse-Lautrec come to mind.

 

 

“Boulevard Montmartre at Night” (1897) (21”x26”) is considered one of Pissarro’s masterpieces, equal to Van Gogh’s “Starry Night” (1889). Painting at night was difficult, and when successful was exceptional. Gas lights lined city streets in the 19th Century, but they were replaced by the white electric lights in 1878, included in this scene. Street lights were one of Hausmann’s ideasto make Paris safer, and they made night life possible. Pissarro painted 14 scenes of Boulevard Montmartre in sunlight, snow, rain, fog, and mist, and in the morning, afternoon, and evening. Carriages are parked along the sidewalks, waiting for passengers. Shops and restaurants run the whole length of the street. Dashes and dots of brushwork suggest this active scene.

 

 

 

Pissarro created 15 paintings in 1898 from his room in the Grand Hotel du Louvre on the Place du Palais Royal. His room provided a view of the Avenue de l’Opera, the Place du Theatre Francais, and the Rue Saint-Honore. In “Avenue de l’Opera, Snow Effect” (1898) (26”x21”), two large roundabouts can be seen on either side of the wide thoroughfare that leads to the distant, newly constructed Paris Opera House (1861-1875). With the industrial revolution in full swing, the newly wealthy middle class formed associations to fund institutions such as the opera house. In the past, opera stages were part of royal palaces and available only to members of the ruling classes. The Paris Opera House, designed by Charles Garnier (1825-1898), is obscured by the mist in this painting, but it was and is grandiloquent. Pissarro chose to show the effects of a heavy snow fall, leaving roof tops and awnings tipped with white. The line of buildings and the tracks in the snow create a strong perspective view.

The years from 1897 until 1898 brought several tragedies into Pissarro’s life. His son Lucien suffered a stroke and another son Felix died of tuberculosis at age 23. The Dreyfus Affair concerned an Army Captain, who was Jewish and wrongfully accused and convicted of being a German spy as a result of antisemitism. Pissarro, a Jew, lost some of his friends who were antisemitic. Never political of religious in his paintings, he did write a few letters in support of Dreyfus’s innocence. He was able to separate politics from painting, and in a letter to his son Lucien to tell him of Felix’s death, he wrote: “I am delighted to be able to try to do these Paris streets, which are so often called ugly, but which are so silvery, so luminous and so lively”.

Pissarro took an apartment at 204 rue de Rivoli that faced the Jardin des Tuileries.  He painted six views of the garden. “Garden of the Tuileries on a Spring Morning’’ (1899) (29”x36”) is a depiction of the park, created by Queen Catherine de Medici in 1564, located between the Louvre and the Place de la Concorde. The garden was opened to the public in 1667. The two steeples of the church of Sainte-Clotilde can be seen in the distance.  Pissarro’s dealer Durand-Ruel happily took the paintings to sell. The paintings were so successful that Pissarro took the same rooms later in 1899. He created another 14 paintings of the garden and 8 views of the Place du Carousel. 

 

From 1900 until 1903, Pissarro painted views of the Louvre from the second floor of a house on Place Dauphine. “The Seine at the Louvre” (1903) (19’’x22”) is his last painting. It is a depiction of an overcast fall day. The buildings of the Louvre are shrouded in a blue-gray mist. Some boats ply the river. A few people are on the Square du Vert-Galant at the lower left. In summer it is a green space with a variety of trees. The Pont des Arts (1803), a pedestrian bridge between the Louvre and the Institut de France, spans the river. It was the first iron bridge in Paris. The bridge became famous in 2008 for the love locks that people attached to the rails. 

Pissarro died of sepsis on November 13, 1903. His wife and remaining children were present. Many prominent artists attended his funeral, among them Monet, Renoir, and Matisse. The next generation of French painters, the Fauves and Matisse, recognized the importance of Pissarro to Impressionism and the liberation of art for the future. Pissarro was and continues to be considered the father of Impressionism.

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Beverly Hall Smith was a professor of art history for 40 years. Since retiring to Chestertown with her husband Kurt in 2014, she has taught art history classes at WC-ALL and the Institute of Adult Learning, Centreville. An artist, she sometimes exhibits work at River Arts. She also paints sets for the Garfield Theater in Chestertown.